Initial Commit

Code/1.HelloWorld.jl

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+println("Hello Julia!")
+
+x = 3
+y = 2
+z = x + y
+
+println(z)

Code/10.structs1.jl

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+
+# User defined types are made with the struct keyword. Member variables are
+# listed in the struct body as follows.
+# Keep in mind that julia does not support redefining of types by default,
+# so whenever you change anything in the struct (field names/types, etc.)
+# you have to restart the REPL.
+# Alternatively you could look into the package Revise.jl which solves
+# some of these problems.
+struct TestType
+    x
+    y
+    z
+end
+
+# Every struct gets a default constructor that is the typename taking
+# in all the member variables in order.
+t = TestType(1, 2, 3)
+
+# Every struct also gets a default print function that shows the variable
+# in style of the constructor.
+@show t
+
+# Accessing the member variables of the struct is done simply by just
+# writing variable_name.field_name
+# every field is always public as julia does not implement any heavy
+# object oriented design.
+@show t.x
+
+# This line is illegal since struct are immutable by default.
+# t.y = 5
+
+# Field mutability can be achieved by adding the keyword "mutable" in front.
+# However for simple structs, like this xyz-point like structure, it is
+# much more efficient if you can avoid making it mutable. This has to do
+# with how mutable struct are allocated differently then immutable ones.
+# Read more in the "Types" section of the julia documentation.
+mutable struct TestType2
+    x::Float64
+    y::Float64
+    z::Float64
+end
+
+# Also as illustrated above, the fields in a struct can be strictly typed.
+# This is usually a good idea since it makes the struct take a constant
+# amount of space, and removes a lot of type bookkeping.
+
+t2 = TestType2(1.68, 3.14, 2.71)
+
+# With this mutable struct, the variable now behaves more like a general
+# container (Array/vector) so you can change the fields.
+t2.y = 1.23
+@show t2
+
+# You can also make parametric types, kind of like templates in C++.
+# This essentially creates a new type for each new T, so it alleviates the
+# problem of keeping track of the types of the individual fields.
+struct TestType3{T}
+    x::T
+    y::T
+    z::T
+end
+
+# This now constructs a TestType3{Int64}
+t3 = TestType3(1, 2, 3)
+@show t3
+
+
+# This will be the example struct throughout the rest of the file.
+struct Polar{T<:Real}
+    r::T
+    θ::T
+    
+    # You might want to make your own constructors for a type.
+    # These are typically made inside the struct body since this overrides
+    # the creation of the default constructor described above.
+    function Polar(r::T, θ::T) where T <: Real
+        # Doing some constructy stuff
+        println("Creating Polar number (r = $r, θ = $θ)")
+        
+        # The actual variable is created by calling the "new()" function
+        # which acts as the default constructor. This however is just
+        # accessible to functions defined inside the struct body.
+        new{T}(r, θ)
+    end
+    
+    # You might want to implement multiple different constructors.
+    # This one is short and simple so it can be created with the inline syntax.
+    # The zero(T) function finds the apropriate "zero" value
+    # for the given type T. That way no implicit conversions have to be done.
+    Polar{T}() where T <: Real = new{T}(zero(T), zero(T))
+end
+
+# Not all constructors have to be defined inside the struct body, but here
+# outside the body we no longer have access to the "new()" function since
+# the compiler doesn't have any way to infer which type "new" would refer
+# to out here. So instead we have to use one of the constructors we defined
+# inside the struct.
+# This constructor is very similar to the Polar{T}() function but instead
+# of writing p = Polar{Int}() to take the type in as a template argument
+# you would pass the type in as an actual argument; p = Polar(Int)
+Polar(::Type{T}) where T <: Real = Polar{T}()
+
+
+# Constructing with the first constructor
+p = Polar(3.14, 2.71)
+@show p
+
+# Constructing with the empty constructor
+p = Polar{Int}()
+@show p
+
+# Constructing with the constructor taking the type as an argument
+p = Polar(Float16)
+@show p
+
+
+# You might want to overload som basic operators and functions on your
+# type. One common thing to want to override is how your variables are printed.
+# Since there are so many different ways of converting a variable to text
+# (print, println, @printf, string, @show, display, etc.)
+# it can be difficult to find out which function is actually responsible
+# for converting to text.
+# This function turns out to be the Base.show() function.
+# It takes in an IO stream object and and the variable you want to show.
+
+# Since the funtion is from the Base module
+# we have to override Base.show specifically
+# Also it is very important to actually specify the type of the variable here
+# so that we are actually specifying the show function for our type only
+# and not for any general type.
+function Base.show(io::IO, p::Polar)
+    # Say we want to print our polar number as r * e^(i θ) style string
+    show(io, p.r) # non strings we want to recursively show
+    write(io, " ⋅ ℯ^(i ⋅ ") # strings we want to write directly with write
+    show(io, p.θ)
+    write(io, ")")
+end
+
+# Now our polar numbers are printed as we specified
+p = Polar(3.14, 2.71)
+@show p
+println(p)
+display(p)
+
+# Even converting to a string is now done with our show functon
+s = string(p)
+@show s
+
+
+# Overloading operators is even simpler as every infix operator is just a
+# function; a + b is equivalent to +(a, b) (for all you lisp lovers)
+
+# For some reason we cannot write the Base.* inline for infix operators
+import Base.*
+*(p1::Polar{T}, p2::Polar{T}) where T = Polar(p1.r * p2.r, p1.θ + p2.θ)
+
+# Multiplication between different types might also be useful
+*(x::T, p::Polar{T}) where T = Polar(x * p.r, p.θ)
+# Implementing the reverse mulitplication such that it becomes commutative
+*(p::Polar{T}, x::T) where T = x * p
+
+p1 = Polar(2.0, 15.0)
+p2 = Polar(3.0, 30.0)
+p3 = p1 * p2
+@show p3
+
+# The in-place arithmetic operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, etc.) are not actual
+# operators but rather just an alias for a = a * b so they need not be
+# implemented seperately. If the memory copying is a problem and you
+# really have to do it in-place the way to do that would be to make some
+# sort of mult!(p, x) function.
+p3 *= 0.5
+@show p3

Code/11.structs2.jl

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+
+# This is just a super simple example to illustrate the "call" operator.
+
+# Simple polynomial type. The Polynomials.jl package is basically a more
+# complete version of this example.
+struct Poly{T}
+    coeffs::Vector{T}
+end
+
+# Could implement a whole bunch of operators (+, -, *, /, show, etc.)
+# but that can be left as an exercise for the reader :3
+# Also the Polynomials.jl package have implemented most of those.
+
+# Here, the whole point of this example; This function basically makes
+# the variable, p, act as a polynomial function on x.
+function (p::Poly{T})(x::T) where T <: Number
+    ret = zero(T)
+    for i in 1 : length(p.coeffs)
+        ret += p.coeffs[i] * x^(i - 1)
+    end
+    ret
+end
+
+# Now any variable of type Poly can be used as if it was a function
+# This gives some really clean syntax :)
+p = Poly([0.0, -3.0, 0.0, 1.0]) # p = 0 - 3 x + 0 x^2 + 1 x^3
+@show p(3.0)

Code/12.structs3.jl

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+
+# This is a more complete example of a linked list implementation, but exists
+# mainly to illustrate how to implement indexing and iteration.
+
+# okay, this is the dirtiest hack I have ever done in julia.
+# Julia is really finicky when it comes to redefining structs.
+# Usually it isn't a problem if you haven't changed anything,
+# but because of the recursive inclusion in the Node_ struct it was really
+# unhappy, so this basically runs this if block the first time
+# and not any subsequent times.
+if !isdefined(@__MODULE__, :__first__)
+__first__ = true
+
+# The node struct that actually holds the values
+mutable struct Node_{T}
+    data::T
+    prev::Union{Node_{T}, Nothing}
+    next::Union{Node_{T}, Nothing}
+end
+
+# An alias for a type union such that we can set a node to the value nothing
+# when we want to indicate the end of the list.
+const Node{T} = Union{Node_{T}, Nothing}
+
+# Since we made the alias for Node, we make this wrapper for the constructor
+# of the actual Node_ object. There are probably better ways to do this
+# but this works fine.
+function make_node(data::T, prev::Node{T}, next::Node{T}) where T
+    Node_{T}(data, prev, next)
+end
+
+# The wrapper struct for the nodes. Most of the methods will be implemented
+# on this type.
+# It is also specified as a subtype of the abstract type AbstractArray.
+# This signalises that it will mostly act like an array
+# and makes it possible to pass a LinkedList into a function that is specified
+# to take in objects of type AbstractArray. This gives a bunch of functions
+# that needs to be implemented, and some that can be overridden. All of these
+# are listed under the "Intefaces" section in the julia docs.
+# Here we will implement the required methods and the methods for iteration.
+mutable struct LinkedList{T} <: AbstractArray{T, 1}
+    head::Node{T}
+    tail::Node{T}
+    items::Int # Keeping track of how many items for quick length checking
+    
+    # Implementing a default constructor
+    LinkedList{T}() where T = new{T}(nothing, nothing, 0)
+end
+
+end # End of the dirty hack
+
+# Constructor to create a list from a collection of elements
+function LinkedList(elems::AbstractArray{T}) where T
+    l = LinkedList{T}()
+    for e in elems
+        push!(l, e)
+    end
+    l
+end
+
+
+# Not required for AbstractArray, but makes sence to implement
+function Base.push!(l::LinkedList{T}, v::T) where T
+    n_node = make_node(v, nothing, nothing)
+    
+    if l.head === nothing
+        l.tail = l.head = n_node
+    else
+        l.tail.next = n_node
+        n_node.prev = l.tail
+        l.tail = n_node
+        # n_node.next = l.head # Uncomment this one if you feel brave ;)
+    end
+    l.items += 1
+    l
+end
+
+# One of the reqired functions for AbstractArray. size returns a tuple
+# of all the dimensions, but this is a 1d collection so it only contains
+# one element.
+Base.size(l::LinkedList) = (l.items, )
+
+# Implements the iteration function. This makes it possible to for example
+# write something like "for element in list" to iterate through the list.
+# The function returns a 2-tuple where the first element is the next iteration
+# item and the second element is the next state. The state is some variable
+# that determines the next element and state. When the function returns
+# nothing, the loop is done.
+function Base.iterate(l::LinkedList, state=l.head)
+    if state === nothing
+        nothing # If the state is nothing, we return nothing
+    else
+        (state.data, state.next) # Else the next item/state is returned
+    end
+end
+
+# Implements a simple show function for nicer printing. The default show
+# function is ridiculous when you have circular/recursive containment in
+# your structs, so it is necessary to implement a nicer version.
+function Base.show(io::IO, l::LinkedList{T}) where T
+    show(io, l.items)
+    write(io, "-element LinkedList{")
+    show(io, T)
+    write(io, "}:\n    ")
+    first = true
+    for elem in l
+        if !first
+            write(io, " → ")
+        end
+        first = false
+        show(io, elem)
+    end
+end
+
+# A utility function for both the getindex and setindex! functions
+function findnode(l::LinkedList, i::Int)
+    if !(1 <= i <= length(l))
+        throw(BoundsError(l, i)) # Throwing an error if out of bounds
+    end
+    curnode = l.head
+    for j in 1 : i - 1
+        curnode = curnode.next
+    end
+    curnode
+end
+
+# Another required function for AbstractArray.
+# This function makes it possible to read the element at a certain index
+# with the syntax l[i]
+Base.getindex(l::LinkedList, i::Int) = findnode(l, i).data
+
+# The complimentary function for seting elements at a given index
+# with corresponding syntax l[i] = v
+Base.setindex!(l::LinkedList{T}, v::T, i::Int) where T = findnode(l, i).data = v
+
+
+# Practial to override the copy function. In this case it it really
+# simple to set up because of the way we made the constructor.
+Base.copy(l::LinkedList) = LinkedList(l)
+
+# Implementing the append function as well. Not necessary but practical to have.
+function Base.append!(l::LinkedList{T}, l2::AbstractArray{T}) where T
+    for elem in l2
+        push!(l, elem)
+    end
+end
+
+# Implementing insert! for a linked list is quite useful
+function Base.insert!(l::LinkedList{T}, i::Int, v::T) where T
+    node = findnode(l, i)
+    n_node = make_node(v, node, node.next)
+    if node.next !== nothing
+        node.next.prev = n_node
+    end
+    node.next = n_node
+    l
+end
+
+# Same goes for deleteat!
+function Base.deleteat!(l::LinkedList, i::Int)
+    node = findnode(l, i)
+    if node.prev !== nothing
+        node.prev.next = node.next
+    end
+    if node.next !== nothing
+        node.next.prev = node.prev
+    end
+    l
+end
+
+# It can be useful to reverse a list
+function Base.reverse!(l::LinkedList)
+    cur_node = l.head
+    for i = 1 : length(l)
+        cur_node.prev, cur_node.next = cur_node.next, cur_node.prev
+        cur_node = cur_node.prev
+    end
+    l.head, l.tail = l.tail, l.head
+    l
+end
+
+# It can also be useful to make a reversed copy of a list
+Base.reverse(l::LinkedList) = reverse!(copy(l))
+
+
+# Some test code:
+
+# Creating a linked list
+l = LinkedList(1 : 5)
+@show l
+
+# showing the third element
+@show l[3]
+
+# setting the third element
+l[3] = 7
+@show l
+
+# inserting the value 8 between 2nd and 3rd node
+insert!(l, 2, 8)
+@show l
+
+# deleting the second node
+deleteat!(l, 2)
+@show l
+
+# since all required functions for AbstractArray have been implemented
+# standard functions, such as sort!, should now work. However if performance
+# is important you should probably implement your own version of functions
+# so that it is done more efficiently for the collection in question.
+# for example the sort function here will do a lot of index operations
+# and since finding a node in a linked list is O(n) complexity and
+# sort! is O(n log n) list operations, the whole runtime becomes O(n^2 log n).
+sort!(l)
+@show l
+

Code/13.fileIO.jl

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+
+# File IO is really similar to how it would be done in python and C.
+
+io = open("test.txt", "w") # Opens test.txt for writing
+write(io, "Hello World!") # writes a string to it
+close(io) # closes the file
+
+# However the more appropriate way to do it would be more similar to
+# Python's "with" statement. This encloses the file handling in a code block
+# and automatically closes the filestream and does cleanup if anything goes
+# wrong.
+open("test.txt", "w") do io
+    write(io, "Hello\nWorld!")
+end
+
+# The do-syntax here is really just syntactical sugar for giving the
+# open() function a function as an argument
+
+# The following syntax is effectively what the do-syntax above does.
+# Create a function taking in a single argument with the file-handling code
+function f(io)
+    write(io, "Hello\nWorld!")
+end
+
+# call the open function with this function as the first parameter
+open(f, "test.txt", "w")
+
+# This makes for some really clean and safe file handling syntax.
+s = open("test.txt", "r") do io
+    collect(eachline(io))
+end
+display(s)
+
+# for simple functions as the one above it is possible to just pass
+# the the function directly in without using the do-syntax
+# for a really compact one line function call
+# The ∘ symbol is function composition (from mathematics)
+s = open(collect ∘ eachline, "test.txt", "r")
+display(s)

Code/14.IOBuffer.jl

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+
+# IOBuffers are like writing to a file in memory. They are really efficient
+# when creating strings and work like any other IO object we've worked with.
+io = IOBuffer()
+
+a = 42
+write(io, "i = ")
+print(io, a)
+
+# To retrieve the written data from the buffer we call take!(). This returns
+# a Vector{UInt8} so to interpret it as a string we call String()
+s = String(take!(io))
+
+println(s)
+

Code/15.lambdas.jl

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+
+# A lambda function is made with an arrow from the arguments
+# to the function body
+f = x -> 2x^2
+@show f(2)
+
+# If the function takes more then one argument, parenthesis are required
+g = (x, y) -> x * y
+@show g(2, 3)
+
+# This also holds for functions taking no arguments
+p = () -> Float64(π)
+@show p()
+
+# Function currying is possible, so if anyone wants to do lambda calculus
+# feel free.
+h = x -> y -> x / y
+@show h(12)(4)
+
+# If a function has to be written over multiple lines, this can be done
+# with a "begin" block.
+fib = n -> begin
+    a, b = 0, 1
+    for i in 1 : n
+        a, b = b, a + b
+    end
+    a
+end
+@show fib.(0:6)
+
+# Lambdas can be useful when passing a function as an argument
+# without wanting to give it a name. Here is an example using a lambda
+# instead of using the do-syntax for file handling
+s = open(io -> String(read(io)), "test.txt", "r")
+println(s)

Code/16.Macro.jl

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+
+# Julia comes with a lot of useful macros. Youv'e already seen the @show macro.
+x = 5
+@show x
+
+# Macros are a small part of julias huge metaprogramming system.
+# There exists a bunch of useful macros, both in julia itself, and in
+# different packages. A macro is basically a function that takes in a list
+# of arguments and generates a code block at compiletime. It is possible
+# to create your own macros, but that takes some reading up on the
+# metaprogramming section in the julia docs.
+
+
+# Probably one of my most used macros is the @time macro
+reallyslowfunction() = sleep(2)
+@time reallyslowfunction()
+
+# If you want to time a whole code block this is done with a "begin" block
+@time begin
+    # Slow code
+    sleep(1)
+end
+
+
+

Code/17.Broadcast.jl

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+
+# The broadcast operator (.) can be quite useful when dealing with arrays.
+# Basically whenever an operator or function is used, you can just write
+# a dot (.) before the operator/function to make it act elementwise.
+
+# Here we elementwise add 3 to the array
+a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
+a .+= 3
+@show a
+
+# Here we elementwise multiply a by 2 and then elementwise add a and b.
+b = a .* 2
+@show b
+c = a .+ b
+@show c
+
+# To elementwise use more general functions the dot symbol is placed between
+# the function name and parentheses.
+f(x) = 2x^2
+d = f.(c)
+@show d

Code/18.Unicode.jl

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+
+# Julia uses unicode characters quite heavily. Mostly it is possible to avoid
+# using unicode completely, but it can make code look quite clean.
+# The unicode autocompletion for vscode mostly works, but can be a bit
+# unreliable, but the julia REPL (console) is also useful for writing unicode.
+# There is a whole section in the Julia docs dedicated to how to input different
+# unicode characters, so just search "Unicode Input" in the docs.
+
+# We've seen a lot of different unicode symbols, here are some more useful ones.
+
+# The infix operator for boolean xor is the ⊻ (\veebar, \xor) symbol.
+b = true ⊻ false
+
+# In the LinearAlgebra package the ⋅ (\cdot) symbol is overloaded as the
+# scalar product of vectors.
+using LinearAlgebra
+a = [1, 2] ⋅ [2, 1]
+@show a
+
+# Where you would write "in" you could probably use either ∈ (\n) or ∉ (\notin)
+
+# You can use ∈ for iteration
+for i ∈ 1 : 5
+    # dostuff
+end
+
+# It can also be used for checking if an element is in a collection
+3 ∈ [1, 2, 3, 4]
+# And the notin symbol can be used to check if something isn't in the collection
+2 ∉ [1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+# The mathematical constants π (\pi) and ℯ (\euler) are defined as irrationals
+# that can be cast to a numeric type and they will be calculated to the
+# required precision.
+
+# This calculates pi the the precision of a Float64
+p = Float64(π)
+@show p
+
+# This will calculate the fraction closest to ℯ using Int16.
+e = Rational{Int16}(ℯ)
+@show e

Code/19.Packages.txt

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+
+Therer are a lot of different useful packages for julia. All official
+Packages can be found at https://juliaobserver.com/packages (I think)
+
+Here are a couple of good packages i use a lot.
+
+IJulia:
+This package is required for using Julia in jupyter.
+
+LinearAlgebra:
+This package comes with julia without any need for installation and includes
+a lot of linear algebra functionality, comparable to numpy.linalg.
+
+Statistics:
+Distributions, mean, standard deviations, etc...
+
+Plots:
+Creates nice plots. Has support for multiple backends (including pyplot).
+
+PyCall:
+makes it possible to import python packages into julia and write python code
+in julia files. Anytime there exists a useful python package and no julia
+equivalent, this package saves lives.
+
+Primes:
+I do not know what magic they put into making this package, but I have never
+seen a so fast funtion for checking if a number is prime ever.
+The package is useful for working with prime numbers.
+
+Memoize:
+A useful package for automatically memoizing a function. For people taking
+algorithms and datastructures, this will make more sence later in the course.
+
+Images:
+Useful to handle images. Terrible slow to load the package, but once loaded
+it is quite fast and very featureful.
+
+SymPy:
+A wrapper for pythons sympy package which is arguably much better than
+sympy itself.
+
+Printf:
+Wrapper for the C- printf style functions for fast string formating.
+
+CSV:
+Package for reading/writing .csv (comma seperated values) files.
+
+JSON:
+Package for reading/writing .json files.

Code/2.functions.jl

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+
+# Standard function definition
+function f(x, y)
+    return x + y
+end
+
+# Function implicitly returns the value of the last line
+# of the function so no return keyword is required
+function g(x, y)
+    x - y
+end
+
+# Functions can be defined one one line like this.
+# This is just a shorthand and is compiled identically to the ones above
+h(x, y) = x * y
+
+
+# Can enforce types on function arguments and return value
+# This makes it possible to create multiple functions
+# with the same name but different types; These are called methods
+f(x::Float64, y::Float64)::Float64 = x / y
+
+
+# Runs the generic method of the function at the top of the file
+println(f(2, 3))
+
+# Runs the specific method defined for two Float64.
+println(f(2.2, 3.2))
+
+# Also falls back the the generic method as input is (::Float64, ::Int64)
+println(f(1.6, 3))

Code/3.arithmetic.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+
+
+# Also possible to enforce types on local variables
+
+function main()
+    # Int is an alias for Int32 or Int64 depending on your installation
+    # 32 bit vs 64 bit
+    a::Int = 14
+    b::Int = 7
+    
+    # Enforces the type of c for the rest of the scope
+    c::Int = a + b
+    @show typeof(c) c # The @show macro is basically a debug print
+    
+    # Normal division of integers returns Float64
+    # Assignment to c tries to convert result to the
+    # type of c as the type is enforced.
+    # If unable to convert to Int it throws an appropriate exception
+    c = a / b
+    @show typeof(c) c
+    
+    # // is rational division. This returns a rational number
+    c = a // b
+    @show typeof(c) c
+    
+    
+    # Integer division is done by div, fld or cld (floor divide/ceil divide)
+    # div rounds towards zero (1.5 -> 1, -2.7 -> -2)
+    # floor rounds downwards (1.5 -> 1, -2.7 -> -3)
+    # ceil rounds upwards (1.5 -> 2, -2.7 -> -2)
+    c = div(a, b)
+    c = fld(a, b)
+    c = cld(a, b)
+    
+    # Exponentiation is done with the ^ symbol as in most calculator programs
+    c = a^b
+    @show c
+end
+
+main()
+

Code/4.strings.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+
+# Strings are made with double quotes ""
+# Single quotes '' are reserved for single characters (i.e. c/c++)
+s = "Hello world"
+println(s)
+
+
+# When converting to a string the function string (with lower case s)
+# is used.
+a = 3.14
+s = string(a)
+
+println(s) # Prints 3.14
+
+
+# The length of a string can be found with the length function
+# similar to len in python
+
+@show length(s)
+
+
+# The function String (with upper case S) is used for more direct
+# interpretation of data as a string
+
+a = UInt8[65, 66, 67] # ASCII codes for "ABC"
+
+println(String(a)) # Prints ABC
+println(string(a)) # Prints UInt8[0x41, 0x42, 0x43]
+
+
+# When converting from string to some numeric value, the parse function
+# is used. This function takes in the type to try to parse to as well
+# as the string to parse.
+s = "128"
+a = parse(Int, s)
+
+@show a
+
+s = "3.14"
+a = parse(Float64, s)
+
+@show a
+
+
+# Easy inline string formating can be done with the $ (eval) symbol
+a, b = 3, 5
+
+s = "a, b = $a, $b" # generates string "a, b = 3, 5"
+println(s)
+
+s = "a + b = $(a + b)" # "a + b = 8"
+println(s)
+
+# However it is usually faster (performance wise) to just pass in
+# multiple arguments to f.exs. println
+println("a + b = ", a + b)
+
+
+# The raw string macro is very useful when copying raw text and not
+# wanting to worry about special characters doing special stuff
+# (i.e. \n for new line). A common use for this is filepaths
+
+filepath = raw"C:\Users\somefolder\somefile.txt"
+@show filepath
+
+# String concatenation is, somewhat weirdly, done with the * sign
+# instead of the + sign. Julia's justification for this is that
+# addition (+) is reserved for commutative operations (a + b = b + a)
+# and since string concatenation is not commutative it gets the multiplication
+# symbol instead.
+s = "foo" * "bar"
+println(s)
+
+# This by extension means that if you want to repeat a string n times
+# this is done with the exponentiation (^) sign
+s = "foo"^5
+println(s)
+
+# To get input from the console this can be done with the readline() function
+# However getting console input when running in vscode with F5/shift+enter
+# seems to crash for some reason, so avoid console input if thats how you
+# run the program
+# s = readline()
+# println(s)

Code/5.arrays.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+
+# Lists/Arrays/Vectors work very similarly to python
+
+# A list can be constructed from a set of elements with [] brackets
+l = [1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+@show typeof(l)
+
+# Indexing the array can be done with [] also.
+# Keep in mind, arrays in julia are 1-indexed by default
+@show l[2]
+
+# The type of elements in the array can be enforced by writing
+# the type directly in front of the brackets
+l = Int32[1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+@show typeof(l)
+
+# An array will try to implicitly convert data to have a single
+# element data type
+l = [1, 2.3, 3//2]
+
+@show l
+@show typeof(l)
+
+# However if this is not possible, the list will get the type Any.
+# Arrays with multiple types are much more inefficient because of
+# type bookkeeping.
+l = [1, 2.3, 3//2, "hello"]
+
+@show l
+@show typeof(l)
+
+# Julia natively supports multidimensional arrays, such as matrices, tensors
+# etc. with a lot of linear algebra built into the language.
+m = [
+    1 2 3;
+    4 5 6;
+    7 8 9
+]
+
+display(m)  # display() is a pretty-print function that is nice for showing
+            # matrices and other containers
+@show typeof(m)
+
+# Creating an "empty" array can be done in a couple different ways
+
+# Creating an array with no elements is usually done with empty brackets []
+l = []
+# or with a specific type
+l = Float32[]
+
+# Creating an uninitialized array with a set amount of elements
+# can be achieved by calling the Array constructor
+
+l = Array{Int, 1}(undef, 100) # Creating a 1d array of 100 undefined elements
+
+# when working with 1d arrays it is usually better to use the alias Vector
+# for 1d array. Vector{T} is an alias for Array{T, 1}
+
+l = Vector{Int}(undef, 100) # Does the exactly the same as line above
+
+# however it is usually cleaner and safer to use the function zeros() or
+# ones() to initialize the memory.
+l = zeros(Int, 100) # creates an array of 100 zeros of type Int
+l = ones(Int, 100) # same for ones
+
+# Values can be added to the back of an array with the push! function.
+l = [1, 2, 3, 4]
+push!(l, 5)
+
+@show l
+
+# Reserving space in the buffer can be done with sizehint!
+# That way pushing values to the array doesn't cause so many reallocations
+
+sizehint!(l, 100) # reserving space for 100 elements
+
+# Pushing to the front can be done with pushfirst!
+pushfirst!(l, 0)
+
+@show l
+
+# Do not confuse push! with append!. Where append in python works as push!
+# here, append! in julia concatenates a whole array to the back.
+append!(l, [6, 7, 8, 9])
+
+@show l
+
+# Deleting an element at a specific index is done by deleteat!
+# Keep in mind that deleting elements from an array is often slow
+# as data has to be moved. In julia it is fast to delete elements near
+# either end of the array as the shortest end is the one moved to fill
+# the space.
+deleteat!(l, 3)
+
+@show l
+
+# As in python, list can be created with a list comprehension
+l = [i^2 for i in 1 : 5] # creates square numbers from 1 to 25
+@show l
+
+# As Julia supports multidimensional arrays, it also supports
+# multidimensional list comprehensions
+l = [x * y for y in 1 : 3, x in 1 : 4]
+display(l)
+
+# It is possible to view an array through a wrapper, making it differently
+# organized without copying data, f.exs. the transpose of a matrix or
+# viewing a multidimensional array as the raw memory as a 1d array.
+# There are many different types of views in multiple different packages.
+# search the documentation to see more
+
+l2 = view(l, 3:-1:1, 1 : 4) # Flipping the matrix upside down
+display(l2)
+
+l2 = transpose(l) # transpose is a wrapper for a PermutedDimsArray
+l2 = PermutedDimsArray(l, (2, 1)) # flips x and y dimensions
+display(l2)
+
+
+# Random numbers can be created in many different ways. Here are a fiew
+# easy ones.
+
+a = rand(Int64) # Create a random Int64
+a = rand(Float64) # Create random Float64 in the range 0 : 1
+a = rand(1 : 10) # Create a random Int in the given range
+l = rand(1 : 10, 3, 4) # Create a random 3x4 matrix with entries in 1 : 10
+display(l)
+
+using Random
+rand!(l, -100 : 100) # Fill l with random entries from -100 : 100
+display(l)

Code/6.dicts.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+
+# Dicts (dictionaries/maps) are not as simple as in python, resembling
+# more the way modern c++ does it
+
+# Dicts are usually created from an array of "Pair" types (First => Last)
+# The type of the dict keys and values are automatically infered.
+d = Dict([
+    "foo" => 3,
+    "bar" => 7
+])
+display(d)
+
+# A dict can also be initialized as an array of two tuples. This works
+# identically to the example above
+d = Dict([
+    ("foo", 2.71),
+    ("bar", 3.14)
+])
+display(d)
+
+# Values can be pushed to the dict similarly to an array.
+# Keep in mind that creating an empty dict like this gives the type
+# Dict{Any, Any} which might be somewhat slower because of having
+# to work for general types
+d = Dict()
+push!(d, "foo" => 1//2)
+push!(d, "bar" => 22//7)
+display(d)
+
+# The problem above can be mitigated by infering the types manually
+d = Dict{String, Rational{Int}}()
+push!(d, "foo" => 1//2)
+push!(d, "bar" => 22//7)
+display(d)
+
+# A key can be deleted from a dict with delete!()
+delete!(d, "foo")
+display(d)
+
+# To check if a certain key exists in the dict, the haskey function is used
+println(haskey(d, "foo")) # false
+println(haskey(d, "bar")) # true
+
+# Indexing a dict is done with brackets like for any array
+println(d["bar"])

Code/7.sets.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+
+# Sets are created from lists of elements and duplicates are removed
+s = Set(['a', 'b', 'c', 'b'])
+display(s)
+@show 'b' in s
+
+# As with other collections, elements can be added with push!
+push!(s, 'd')
+display(s)
+
+# And elements are removed with delete!
+delete!(s, 'b')
+display(s)
+
+# An empty set can be made just like an empty dict, but again this forces
+# it to accept elements of type Any, which can be an minor slowdown
+s = Set()
+
+# This is of course fixed by infering the type when creating the dict
+s = Set{Int}()
+push!(s, 2)
+display(s)
+
+# Usual set operations like union, intersect, difference and checking if
+# one is a subset of another, are all implemented, many with
+# unicode infix operators
+s1 = Set([1, 2, 4, 8, 16])
+s2 = Set([2, 3, 5, 16])
+
+@show union(s1, s2) # Takes the set union
+@show s1 ∪ s2 # Equvialent to the line above (\cup for the unicode macro)
+
+@show intersect(s1, s2) # Set intesect
+@show s1 ∩ s2 # Unicode version (\cap)
+
+@show setdiff(s1, s2) # Set difference. No unicode replacement for this one
+@show symdiff(s1, s2) # symetric difference. No unicode here either
+
+union!(s1, s2) # Equvialent to s1 = s1 ∪ s2
+@show s1
+
+intersect!(s1, s2) # Equvialent to s1 = s1 ∩ s2
+@show s1
+
+# Check if s1 is a subset of s2. (\subseteq)
+@show s1 ⊆ s2
+

Code/8.controllflow.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+
+a = 3
+b = 5
+
+# if statements are made very similarly to other languages like python
+if a < b
+    println("<")
+elseif a > b
+    println(">")
+else
+    println("=")
+end
+
+
+i = 10
+
+# While loops are made similarly to if statements
+while i >= 0
+    print(i, ' ')
+    global i -= 1
+end
+
+println()
+
+l = []
+
+# A typical range based for loop is made similarly to python
+# with matlab style range syntax
+for i in 1 : 10
+    push!(l, i^2)
+end
+println(l)
+
+# A for-each style for loop is also similar to python
+for i in l
+    print(i, ' ')
+end
+println()
+
+# Reverse ranges can be achieved by specifying the steplength as the
+# middle argument in the range
+for i in length(l) : -1 : 1
+    print(l[i], ' ')
+end
+println()
+
+# A reverse for-each loop can be achieved a couple different ways.
+# Perhaps the cleanest way is to just create the reverse array and
+# iterating over that. This however copies the whole array to a new
+# reversed one, so it is a bit memory inefficient.
+for i in reverse(l)
+    print(i, ' ')
+end
+println()
+
+# This problem can be mitigated by using an array view that views the
+# array in reverse. This is fine, but it doesn't look as clean anymore.
+for i in view(l, length(l) : -1 : 1)
+    print(i, ' ')
+end
+println()

Code/9.scopes.jl

@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+# The global scope in julia behaves weirdly. This section shows how to
+# cicumvent the issues that arise, but the bottom line here should be
+# to avoid the global scope as much as humanly possible.
+# Changing globals require ugly explicit syntax, globals cannot be
+# strongly typed, and, in general, globals are significantly slower
+# up to several orders of magnitude in some cases.
+
+a = 5
+
+# This works
+if a > 2
+    println(a)
+    a += 3
+end
+
+
+for i in 1 : 3
+    println(a)      # This works
+    # a -= 1        # This does not work
+end
+
+# Declaring a to be global fixes this problem
+for i in 1 : 3
+    global a
+    println(a)
+    a -= 1
+end
+
+# None of this is a problem in functions, so do everything in functions
+function main()
+    a = 7
+    for i in 1 : 3
+        a -= 1
+    end
+    println(a)
+end
+
+main()
+
+# An inline function body can be created with a "let" block.
+# This creates a nameless function that is run immediately.
+let a = 10
+    for i in 1 : 3
+        a -= 1
+    end
+    println(a)
+end
+
+
+# A "begin" block is similar to a let block, but it does not enforce
+# a new scope, so this code is still in the global scope
+begin
+    a = 12
+    for i in 1 : 3
+        global a -= 1
+    end
+    println(a)
+end
+

LiveCode/test.jl

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+println("Hello World!")